AAWSAP DIRD, Concepts for Extracting Energy from the Quantum Vacuum, April 2010

UNCLASSIFIED//f'8R: 8f'f'l@ltltL tJS! 8HL1f Defense Intelligence Reference Document Acquisition Threat Support 6 April 2010 ICOD: 1 December 2009 DIA-08-1004-007 Concepts for Extracting Energy From the Quantum Vacuum UNCLASSIFIED/ j F&R 9FFI8ItltL tJS! 8HLY UNCLASSIFIED//F9R 9FFI0IAL YSE 9HL1f Concepts for Extracting Energy From the Quantum Vacuum Prepared by: Acquisition Support Division (DW0-3) Defense Warning Office Directorate for Analysis Defense Intelligence Agency Author: AAP Person 58 Administrative Note COPYRIGHT WARNING: Further dissemination of the photographs in this publication is not authorized. This product is one in a series of advanced technology reports produced in FY 2009 under the Defense Intelligence Agency, Defense Warning Office's Advanced Aerospace Weapon System Applications (AAWSA) Program. Comments or questions pertaining to this document should be addressed to jAAPPerson 1 I, AAWSA Program Manager, Defense Intelligence Agency, ATTN: CLAR/DWO-3, Bldg 6000, Washington, DC 20340-5100. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIOL !l&F Qtlb¥ ii UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAL WSE QptLY Contents I. Summary .............................................................................................................v II. Historical Concepts for Extracting Energy and Thermodynamic Considerations 1 III. Origin of Zero-Point Field Energy..................................................................... 4 Elements of QED Theory ..................................................................................... 4 Elements of SED Theory ..................................................................................... 6 IV. Review of Selected Experiments ....................................................................... 7 Voltage Fluctuations in Coils Induced by ZPF at High Frequency........................ 7 ZPF Energy Extraction by Ground State Energy Reduction ............................... 10 Tunable Casimir Effect ..................................................................................... 14 EV Phenomenon ............................................................................................... 17 V. Theoretical Considerations and Issues ............................................................. 22 QED Vacuum Revisited ..................................................................................... 22 QED Vacuum as a Plenum............................................................................. 22 QED Vacuum as a Mathematical "Placeholder" for Fluctuating Matter Fields 23 Casimir Effect Revisited ................................................................................... 24 Casimir Effect in the Plenum Picture ............................................................ 24 Casimir Effect in the Fluctuating Matter Fields Picture ................................. 24 Type I (Transient) and Type II (Continuous) Machines.................................... 25 Degradability of the Vacuum ............................................................................ 25 Alternatives to QED .......................................................................................... 26 Neoclassical Theories of QED Vacuum Fluctuation Effects ............................ 26 SED Model Revisited ..................................................................................... 27 QED Without Second-Quantized Fields ......................................................... 28 Examples of Degradable of Decaying Vacuum .................................................. 28 Gravitational Squeezing of the Vacuum ........................................................ 29 Redshifting the Vacuum ............................................................................... 29 Vacuum Field Stress: Negative Vacuum Energy from the Casimir Effect ...... 30 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO! Pili QIU.,¥ iii UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS&i OPtkY Squeezed Quantum Vacuum ......................................................................... 32 Dirac Vacuum Decay: "Sparking the Vacuum" .............................................. 33 Magnetically Induced Decay of the Dirac Vacuum ........................................ 34 Melting the QCD Vacuum .............................................................................. 35 Summary: ZPF Modes and Vacuum Field Energy ......................................... 37 VI. Conclusion: The Way Forward to 2050........................................................... 37 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 41 Appendix: The QCD Bag Model ............................................................................ 42 References ........................................................................................................... 44 Figures Figure 1. Illustration of the Casimir Effect ............................................................. 1 Figure 5. Energy Released from Ground State Suppression of Hydrogenic Atom Figure 6. Apparatus for Ground State Energy Suppression: Casimir Segmented Figure 7. Alternative Apparatus for Ground State Energy Suppression: Casimir Figure 2. Vacuum-Fluctuation Battery .................................................................... 1 Figure 3. ZPE Resonant Dielectric Spheres Electrical Power Generation ................. 3 Figure 4. Theoretical Voltage Spectral Density of a Tungsten Coil.......................... 9 in a Microcavity ..................................................................................... 11 Tunnels ................................................................................................. 13 Strip and Spacer-Channels .................................................................... 13 Figure 8. Experimental Apparatus for Ground State Energy Reduction Tests ....... 14 Figure 9. Tunable Casimir Effect: Conductor vs. Dielectric................................... 15 Figure 10. Tunable Casimir Effect: Engine Cycle ................................................... 16 Figure 11. Schematic of EV (Pulse Discharge Source) Device............................... 18 Figure 12. SEM of EV Damage to Ceramic Plate.................................................... 19 Figure 13. SEM of EV Damage to Palladium Target ............................................... 20 Figure 14. EV Moving at Downward Angle Away From Its Source........................ 21 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO! Pili QIU.,¥ iv UNCLASSIFIED/ / FOR OFFI@IAL WSE QptLY Concepts for Extracting Energy From the Quantum Vacuum I. Summary Quantum theory predicts that the vacuum of space throughout the universe is filled with electromagnetic waves, random in phase and amplitude, propagating in all possible directions, and with a cubic frequency distribution. This differs from the cosmic microwave background radiation and is referred to as the electromagnetic quantum vacuum, which is the lowest energy state of otherwise empty space. When integrated over all frequency modes up to the Planck frequency, vp (~1043 Hertz [Hz]), it represents an energy density of as much as 10113 J/m3, which is far in excess of any other known energy source, even if only an infinitesimal fraction of it is accessible. Even if one is constrained to integrate over all frequency modes only up to the nucleon Compton frequency (~10 23 Hz),1 t his energy density is still enormous (~1035 J/m3). In addition, the electromagnetic quantum vacuum is not alone; it intimately couples to the charged particles in the Dirac sea of virtual fermion particle-antiparticle pairs (aka the Dirac vacuum) and thereby couples to the other interactions inherent in the Standard Model (weak and strong force vacua). However, in the Standard Model of particle physics, the weak force vacuum is essentially the electromagnetic vacuum, because photons serve as the massless eigenstates of (unified) electroweak theory with an "effective" coupling constant that is in fact electromagnetic in strength. 2 And we can safely ignore any coupling of the quantum electromagnetic vacuum to the quantum chromodynamic vacuum in this paper because the latter coexists in two phases: (1) the ordinary vacuum exterior to the hadron, which is impenetrable to quark color, and (2) the vacuum interior of the hadron,3 in which the Yang-Mills fields that carry color (gluons) propagate freely. Both vacuum phases are separated by a boundary at the surface of the hadron on which the Yang-Mills and quark fields satisfy boundary conditions. Even though this zero-point field (ZPF) energy seems to be an inescapable consequence of quantum field theory, its energy density is so enormous as to make it difficult to reconcile. Instead, many quantum calculations subtract the ZPF energy by ad hoc means (for example, renormalization). However, the effects of the quantum vacuum ZPF that are responsible for a variety of well­ known physical effects are observed, such as: Lamb shift. Spontaneous atomic emission. 1 The characteristic frequency associated with the size of nucleons. 2 The weak force coupling constant is merely the quantum electrodynamic/electromagnetic coupling constant (i.e., the fine structure constant, a) that is "suppressed" by a simple inverse-quadratic ratio of the virtual weak force particle mass to the proton mass (a factor of 10-4). 3 Hadrons are the class of strongly interacting elementary particles which are a bound state of quarks. This class of particles has two subclasses: baryons (e.g., protons and neutrons comprised of three quarks) and mesons ( comprised of two quarks). UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OEFICIOP Pili QIU.,¥ V UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY Low-temperature van der Waals forces. Casimir effect. Source of photon shot and fluctuating radiation-pressure noise in lasers. • Astronomically observed cosmological constant (aka dark energy, a form of Casimir energy according to the Schwinger-DeWitt quantum ether prescription [ Reference 1-4]). Rather than eliminate the ZPF energy from the equations, there is much left to be learned by exploring the possibility that it is a real energy, From this perspective, the ordinary world of matter and energy is like foam atop the quantum vacuum sea. If the ZPF is real, then there is the possibility that it can be tapped as a source of power or be harnessed to generate a propulsive force for space travel. This notion of exchanging energy with the quantum vacuum is the focus of this paper. An aircraft propeller or jet engine can push air backwards to propel the aircraft forward. A ship or boat propeller does the same thing in water. On Earth there is air or water to push against. But a rocket in space has no material medium to push against, and so it needs to carry and eject propellant in order to provide momentum. A deep-space rocket must start out with all the propellant it will ever require, and this quickly results in the need to carry additional propellant just to propel the propellant. The breakthrough desired in space travel is to eliminate the need to carry propellant at all, that is, to generate a propulsive force without carrying and ejecting propellant? UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OEFICIOP 11ili ODIi.¥ vi UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAb WSE 9Ptb¥ II. Historical Concepts for Extracting Energy and Thermodynamic Considerations The Casimir force is a force associated with the electromagnetic quantum vacuum (Reference 5). This force is an attraction between parallel uncharged metallic plates that has now been well measured and can be attributed to a minute imbalance in the ZPF energy (ZPE) density inside the cavity between the plates versus the region outside the plates as shown in Figure 1 (Reference 6-8). As shown in the figure, the vacuum is full of virtual photons (that is, zero-point vacuum fluctuations), but photons with wavelengths, 'A., more than twice the plate separation, d, are excluded from the space between them, which causes the imbalance that pushes the plates together. The primary requirement for space travel is energy. It is sometimes assumed that attempting to extract energy from the vacuum ZPF would somehow violate the laws of thermodynamics. Fortunately, it turns out that this is not the case. A thought experiment published by Forward (Reference 9, 10) demonstrated how the Casimir force could in principle be used to extract energy from the vacuum ZPF. Forward showed that any pair of conducting plates at close distance experiences an attractive Casimir force that is due to the electromagnetic ZPF of the vacuum. A "vacuum­ fluctuation battery" can be constructed by using the Casimir force to do work on a stack of charged conducting plates as shown in Figure 2. By applying a charge of the same polarity to each conducting plate, a repulsive electrostatic force will be produced that opposes the Casimir force. If the applied electrostatic force is adjusted to be always slightly less than the Casimir force, the plates will move toward each other and the Casimir force will add energy to the electric field between the plates. The battery can be recharged by making the electrical force slightly stronger than the Casimir force to re­ expand the foliated conductor. Figure 1. Illustration of the Casimir Effect Figure 2. Vacuum-Fluctuation Battery (Reference 9) Cole and Puthoff (Reference 11) verified that (generic) energy extraction schemes are not contradictory to the laws of thermodynamics. For thermodynamically reversible processes, no heat will flow at temperature T = 0. However, for thermodynamically UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: !Pili QDII.¥ 1 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY irreversible processes, heat can be produced and made to flow, either at T = 0 or at any other T > 0 situation, such as by taking a system out of mechanical equilibrium . Moreover, work can be done by or done on physical systems, either at T = 0 or T > 0 situations, whether for a reversible or irreversible process. However, if one is considering a net cyclical process on the basis of, say, the Casimir effect, then energy would not be able to be continually extracted without a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, Forward's process cannot be cycled to yield a continuous extraction of energy. Here, the recharging of the battery would, owing to frictional and other losses, require more energy than is gained from the ZPF. There is no useful engine cycle in this process; nonetheless, the plate-contraction phase of the cycle does demonstrate the ability to cause "extraction" of energy from the ZPF. It does reflect work done by the ZPF on matter. Another illustrative example of an early scheme for extracting energy from the ZPF is described in a patent by Mead and Nachamkin (Reference 12). They propose that a set of resonant dielectric spheres be used to extract energy from the ZPF and convert it into electrical power. They consider the use of resonant dielectric spheres, slightly detuned from each other, to provide a beat-frequency downshift of the more energetic high-frequency components of the ZPF to a more easily captured form. Figure 3 shows two embodiments of the invention. The device includes a pair of dielectric structures (items 12, 14, 112, 114 in the figure) that are positioned proximal to each other and which intercept incident ZPE radiation (items 16, 116 in the figure). The volumetric sizes of the structures are selected so that they resonate at a particular frequency of the incident radiation. But the volumetric sizes of the structures are chosen to be slightly different so that the secondary radiations emitted from them (items 18, 20, 24, 118, 120, 124 in the figure) at resonance interfere with each other, thus producing a beat frequency radiation that is at a much lower frequency than that of the incident radiation, and that can be converted into electrical energy. A conventional metallic antenna (loop or dipole type, or a RF cavity structure; items 22, 122 in the figure) can then be used to collect the beat frequency radiation. This radiation is next transmitted from the antenna to a converter via an electrical conductor or waveguide (items 26, 126 in the figure) and converted to electrical energy. The converter must include: 1) a tuning circuit or comparable device so that it can effectively receive the beat frequency radiation, 2) a transformer to convert the energy to electrical current having a desired voltage, and 3) a rectifier to convert the energy to electrical current having a desired waveform (items 28, 30, 32, 34, 128, 130, 132 in the figure). UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 2 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY 10~ 110 20 114 12 14 112 _A 116 ¢{ 22 ~ 26 122 ,..,,.-34 126 ;[[ IT: / 130 I 28_) 32 128_} 132 Figure 3. ZPE Resonant Dielectric Spheres Electrical Power Generation (Reference 12) The receiving structures are composed of dielectric material in order to diffract and scatter the incident ZPE radiation. The volumetric sizing requirements for the receiving structures are selected to enable them to resonate at a high frequency corresponding to the incident ZPE radiation, based on the parameters of frequency of the incident ZPE radiation, and the propagation characteristics of the medium (vacuum or otherwise) and the receiving structures. Since the ZPE radiation energy density increases with increasing frequency, greater amounts of electromagnetic energy are potentially available at higher frequencies. Consequently, the size of the receiving structures must be miniaturized in order to produce greater amounts of energy from a system located within a space or volume of a given size. Therefore, the smaller the size of the receiving structures, the greater the amount of energy that can in principle be produced by the system. Although a computer model study performed at the Air Force Research Laboratory (Edwards AFB, CA) indicates that the invention could work, no experimental study has been performed to validate this in the lab (F. B. Mead, private communication, 2002). Regarding critiques, it is not clear how the beat frequency can be picked up by the receiving loop antenna. There is no nonlinear method in the invention showing that an electromagnetic beat frequency can be generated and coupled to the loop. Without a nonlinear coupling method there will be no sidebands, one of which would be frequency down-shifted and called the beat frequency. The coupling method requires the generation of sidebands in the mixing of two different frequencies via a nonlinear technique. However, an easy resolution to this potential deficiency is that the resonant dielectric spheres could be constructed of a nonlinear dielectric material. Although several novel ZPF energy extraction mechanisms have been proposed in the popular and technical literature, no practicable technique has been successfully demonstrated in the laboratory. To better understand how ZPE extraction methods UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 3 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAL WSE QptLY might work, it is necessary to characterize the physics of the ZPF and proposed energy extraction techniques, and to evaluate their feasibility for application to space power and propulsion systems. In what follows, the physics of the ZPF and the experimental investigations being pursued to address the question of extracting energy from the quantum vacuum are summarized. III. Origin of Zero-Point Field Energy ELEMENTS OF QED THEORY The basis of the ZPF is typically attributed to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. According to this principle, A and B are any two conjugate observables that one is interested in measuring, and they obey the commutation relation [A,B] = in. 4 Their corresponding uncertainty relation is M~B 2'. n/2, where M is the variance (aka uncertainty) of observable A and ~B is that of the conjugate observable B. This relation states that if one measures observable A with very high precision (that is, its uncertainty M is very small), then a simultaneous measurement of observable B will be less precise (that is, its uncertainty ~Bis very large), and vice versa. In other words, it is not possible to simultaneously measure two conjugate observable quantities with infinite precision. This minimum uncertainty is not due to any correctable flaws in measurement, but rather reflects the intrinsic fuzziness in the quantum nature of energy and matter. Substantial theoretical and experimental work has shown that in many quantum systems the limits to measurement precision is imposed by the quantum vacuum ZPF embodied within the uncertainty principle. Nowadays one would rather see the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle as a necessary consequence, and therefore, a derived result of the wave nature of quantum phenomena. The uncertainties are just a consequence of the Fourier nature of conjugate pairs of quantities (observables). For example, the two Fourier-wave-conjugates time and frequency become the pair of quantum-particle conjugates time and energy and the two Fourier-wave-conjugates displacement and wavenumber become the pair of quantum-particle conjugates position and momentum. For more on this see, for example, Reference 13. Classically, electromagnetic radiation can be pictured as waves flowing through space at the speed of light. The waves are not waves of anything substantive, but are in fact ripples in the state of a field. These waves carry energy, and each wave has a specific direction, frequency and polarization state. This is called a "propagating mode of the electromagnetic field." A useful tool for modeling the propagating mode of the electromagnetic field in quantum mechanics is the ideal quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator: a hypothetical charged mass on a perfect spring oscillating back and forth under the action of the spring's restoring force. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle dictates that a quantized harmonic oscillator (aka a photon state) can never come entirely to rest, since that would be a state of exactly zero energy, which is forbidden by the commutation relation outlined above. Instead, every mode of the field has hw/2 as its average minimum energy in the vacuum. 5 (This is a small amount of energy, but the number of modes is enormous, and indeed increases as the square of the frequency. The product of this minuscule energy per mode, multiplied by the huge spatial density of modes, yields a very high theoretical energy density per unit volume.) 4 i is the unit complex number. n is Planck's reduced constant, 1.055 x 10-34 J-s. 5 w is the mode or photon frequency and nw is the energy of a single mode or photon. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 4 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY This ZPE term is added to the classical blackbody spectral radiation energy density p(w)dro (that is, the energy per unit volume of radiation in the frequency interval (w, w + dw)) (Reference 14): al [ hw hw] p(w)dw=- -----+- dw n2c3 exp(hw/ kT) - 1 2 (1) hw3 = - - 3 coth ( -- hw)dw, 2 21t c 2kT where c is the speed of light (3.0 x 108 m/s), k is Boltzmann's constant (1.3807 x 10-23 J/K), T is the absolute temperature, and ro = 2nv is the angular frequency. The factor outside the square brackets in the first line of Equation (1) is the density of mode (or photon) states (that is, the number of states per unit frequency interval per unit volume); the first term inside the square brackets is the standard Planck blackbody radiation energy per mode; and the second term inside the square brackets is the quantum zero-point energy per mode. Equation ( 1) is called the Zero-Point Planck (ZPP) spectral radiation energy density. Planck first added the ZPE term to the classical blackbody spectral radiation energy density in 1912, although it was Einstein, Hopf, and Stern who actually recognized the physical significance of this term in 1913 (Reference 14). Direct spectroscopic evidence for the reality of ZPE was provided by Mulliken's boron monoxide spectral band experiments in 1924, several months before Heisenberg first derived the ZPE for a harmonic oscillator from his new quantum matrix mechanics theory (Reference 15). Following this line of reasoning, quantum physics predicts that all of space must be filled with electromagnetic zero-point fluctuations (aka the zero-point field) creating a universal sea of zero-point energy. The density of this energy depends critically on where the frequency of the zero-point fluctuations ceases. Since space itself is currently thought to break up into a kind of "quantum foam" at the Planck length, Ap (~ 10-35 m), it is argued that the ZPF must cease at the corresponding vp. If true, then the ZPE density would be ~10113 J/m3, 108 orders of magnitude greater than the radiant energy at the center of the Sun! Formally, in Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) theory, the ZPE energy density is taken as infinite; however, arguments based on quantum gravity considerations yield a finite cutoff at vp . Therefore, the spectral energy density is given by p(w)dw = (nw3/2n2c3)dw, which integrates to an energy density, pE = nvp4/8n2c3 ~ 10113 J/m3. As large as the ZPE is, interactions with it are typically cut off at lower frequencies depending on the particle coupling constants or their structure. Nevertheless, the potential ZPF energy density predicted by quantum physics is enormous. Many experts have claimed that an enormous vacuum ZPF energy density would produce a corresponding enormous gravitational force of attraction (via Einstein's General Theory of Relativity) that would cause the immediate collapse of the entire universe. Thus they argue that such enormous vacuum energy cannot be real due to the fact that our universe is observed to be undergoing accelerated expansion. However, such arguments are spurious because numerous studies in quantum field theory show that it is the low-frequency ZPF modes that contribute significantly to the physical vacuum energy, because 1) only the low-frequency modes are affected by the UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 5 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAL WSE QptLY presence of cosmological spacetime curvature, and 2) the high-frequency modes are unaffected by the presence of cosmological spacetime curvature so they take the flat Minkowski spacetime form; that is, these modes contribute nothing to the physical vacuum energy (Reference 4). This then enforces a very low-frequency cutoff that renormalizes the total vacuum energy, leading to a minute residual cosmological vacuum energy density of 10-9 J/m3, which has been observed. Also, investigators studying supersymmetric and superstring quantum gravity theories have proposed the limited cancellation of some positive energy electromagnetic ZPF modes by some negative energy fermionic (Dirac vacuum) ZPF modes as an explanation for the observed minute vacuum energy density. ELEMENTS OF SED THEORY An alternative to QED, stochastic electrodynamics (SEO) identifies the origin of the ZPF as a direct consequence of a classical ZPF background. SEO begins with the ordinary classical electrodynamics of Maxwell and Lorentz, but instead of assuming the traditional homogeneous solution of the source-free differential wave equations for the electromagnetic potentials, one instead considers that due to multiple charged particles moving throughout the universe, there is always a random electromagnetic radiation background present that affects the particle(s) in any experiment. This new boundary condition (random radiation background) replaces the prior null background of traditional classical electrodynamics. Moreover, the principle of relativity dictates that identical experiments performed in different inertial frames must yield the same result, and that this random classical electromagnetic radiation must be isotropic in all inertial frames; it is invariant under scattering by a dipole oscillator, invariant under redshift (Doppler, cosmological, gravitational, no Einstein-Hopf drag force), and must therefore have a Lorentz-invariant energy density spectrum. The only energy density spectrum that obeys such conditions is one that is proportional to the cubic power of the frequency. Interestingly, this is exactly the same frequency dependence as that of the QED spectral ZPF energy density described above, when the temperature Tis set to zero in Equation (1). Thus in SEO, the random radiation assumes the role of the ZPE of QED, and is termed the classical electromagnetic ZPE. Planck's constant appears then in SEO as an adjustable parameter that sets the scale of the ZPE spectral density. The formulation of the SED model has evolved over time, beginning with the work of Nernst in 1916 and the later foundational work of Marshall and Boyer in the 1960s (Reference 14). The original Standard SED model was based on random phases with fixed electric-field mode amplitudes. The more recent Modified SED model employs random phases with random electric-field mode amplitudes and a full probability distribution for the ground state amplitude, in agreement with quantum theory (Reference 16). A comparison of SEO with quantum theory shows that the first and second moments of the spectral energy distribution are identical, but beyond that, the distributions diverge widely. Nevertheless, several quantum theory results have been reproduced by means of the SED approach, such as (Reference 14, 17): • Quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator. • Lamb shift. • Blackbody radiation. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 6 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAk WSE 9Ptk\f • Van der Waals forces. • Casimir forces. • Diamagnetism. • Davies-Unruh Effect. The strength of the SEO model is that it is heuristically appealing, with transparent derivations, and it is applicable to linear systems. SEO calculations have also been shown to be in one-to-one correspondence with the expectation va lues of the Heisenberg quantum equations of motion for linear systems. Both SED and QED will play a role in the discussions to follow. IV. Review of Selected Experiments In what follows, is an outline each of the proposed experimental concepts that were selected for theoretical and laboratory investigation. A subset of our proposed concepts has undergone preliminary evaluation by Lockheed-Martin review panels involving both internal R&D personnel and outside experts on theory and experimentation (V. Teofila, private communication, 2005). VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS IN COILS INDUCED BY ZPF AT HIGH FREQUENCY In a series of experiments, Koch et al. (Reference 18-20) measured voltage fluctuations in resistive wire circuits that are induced by the ZPF. The Koch et al. result is striking corroboration of the reality of the ZPF and proves that the ZPF can do real work (cause measurable currents). Although the Koch et al. experiment detected minuscule amounts of ZPF energy, it shows the principle of ZPF energy circuitry to detect vacuum fluctuations and opens the door to consideration of means to extract useful amounts of energy. The secondary consequences on other phenomena, if energy can be successfully extracted, have not yet been investigated. Blanco et al. (Reference 21) have proposed a method for enhancing the ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations in circuits. Theoretically treating a coil of wire as an antenna, they argue that the antenna-like radiation resistance of the coil should be included in the total resistance of the circuit, and suggest that this total resistance should be used in the theoretical computation of ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations. Because of the strong dependence of the radiation resistance on the number of coil turns (quadratic scaling), coil radius (quartic scaling), and frequency (quartic scaling), any enhanced ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations should be measurable in the laboratory at readily accessible frequencies (100 MHz compared to the 100 GHz range necessary in the Koch et al. experiments). In the theory of Blanco et al., random voltage fluctuations are conveniently described by their frequency spectrum. That is, given a sufficient time interval of measured voltages, the measurements are Fourier transformed to the frequency domain to determine how the voltage fluctuations are distributed (for example, quantity of low­ frequency, long duration fluctuations relative to high-frequency, short-duration UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 7 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY fluctuations). Theoretically, the spectrum of voltage fluctuations, S(ro,T), of a resistive circuit is given by (Reference 21): S(w T) = R(w ,T) hw coth( hw) (2) ' 1t 2 2kT where R(w,T) is the total resistance (ohmic plus radiative), ro is the (angular) frequency, and Tis the absolute temperature. The resistance R(ro,T) is temperature dependent through its ohmic contribution. 6 Note the similar hyperbolic cotangent functions appearing in Equation (2) and in the second line of Equation (1). The postulate of Blanco et al. is that the total resistance must include the radiation resistance of the circuit (Reference 21): R(ro,T) =l\hmic(ro, I)+ l\act(ro) (3) Under the assumption that the wavelengths of the ZPF modes of interest are larger than the dimensions of the circuit, the radiation resistance of a coil is given by (Reference 21): R ( ) = ~ 1t2N 2 ( aw J4 (4) rad 0) 3 C C where N is the number of coil turns, and a is the radius of the coil winding. According to Blanco et al., large enhancements in ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations are possible. By reducing the temperature to minimize ohmic resistance, making the coil of many turns and large radius, and performing measurements at high frequency, it should be possible to investigate this amplification effect. The predicted coil-enhanced voltage spectrum can readily be computed. The result is shown in Figure 4 for a 1 cm diameter coil of 2000 turns, made of 38 AWG tungsten wire, and kept at a temperature of 3 K. In Figure 4, the upper (blue) curve represents the predicted voltage spectral density for the combined ohmic plus radiation resistance. The lower (red) curve is the predicted result when radiation resistance is ignored. If the postulate of Blanco et al. is correct, the enhancement in voltage fluctuations due to the antenna-like nature of the coil should be easily measured at frequencies as low as 100 MHz (where the coil enhancement effect is~ 100-fold for tungsten). 6 The radiation resistance depends only on frequency. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 8 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAk WSE 9Ptk\f 10•18 Material: W N coil: 2000 10·19 a coil: 1 cm 1o-20 b coil: 0.01 cm VJ T: 3 Kelvin 1o-21 108 {{Hz Figure 4. Theoretical Voltage Spectral Density of a Tungsten Coil To successfully measure the ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations, the requirements of low temperature, large coil, and high frequency must be met. The low-temperature requirement is met by performing the experiment in a cooled dewar. Existing high­ quality cryogenic dewars (pumped down to 3 K) and sensitive laboratory instruments are suitable for the measurements. The cold spot in one particular dewar under consideration is cylindrical, 2.5 cm in both diameter and height. The largest coil that can be installed will thus have a coil radius of approximately a = 1 cm. To keep the linear dimension of the coil small will require a small wire thicknesses, perhaps b = 0.01 cm (gauge 38 AWG). By winding the coil in a number of layers (10 or 12 layers), a large number of turns can be accommodated, perhaps N = 2,000 turns. To minimize ohmic resistance, wire made of tungsten (W) is preferred; however, copper (Cu) is a suitable alternative. Voltage fluctuations in the 100 MHz range are easily detected using commercially available laboratory equipment; hence this experiment could be performed using tungsten without resorting to the more sophisticated Josephson junction techniques required by Koch et al. for their higher frequency measurements. For a copper wire coil, the magnitude of the enhancement effect is reduced somewhat compared to the tungsten results shown in Figure 4. But for frequencies approaching the GHz regime, the radiation resistance enhancement effect in copper wire is still predicted to be over UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 9 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAL WSE QptLY four orders of magnitude larger. Commercial equipment readily allows measurements of the voltage spectrum in the GHz regime. Therefore, given a cost tradeoff of copper vs. tungsten coil fabrication, the use of copper coils may be preferred. Suitable coils can be fabricated by a custom coil-winding vendor. A second coil can be used in a control experiment constructed with the same parameters as the first coil, but with half of its turns wound in the reverse direction. This will make the coil non-inductive so that its voltage spectral density should correspond to the lower red curve in Figure 4. ZPF ENERGY EXTRACTION BY GROUND STATE ENERGY REDUCTION As first analyzed by Boyer (Reference 22), and later refined by Puthoff (Reference 23), the following paradox was addressed: even though atomic ground states involve electrons in accelerated motion, such states are nonetheless radiationless in nature ­ even though it is well known from classical electrodynamics that charged particles undergoing acceleration must always emit radiation. For the standard Bohr ground state orbit of the hydrogen atom, this was interpreted as an equilibrium process in which radiation by the electron in its ground state orbit was compensated by absorption of radiation from the background vacuum electromagnetic ZPE. This interpretation has recently been strengthened by the analyses of Cole and Zou (Reference 24, 25) using a SED model for the vacuum ZPE. Since the balance between emitted orbital-acceleration radiation and absorbed ZPE radiation is modeled as taking place primarily at the ground state orbital frequency, one can consider the possibility of using this feature in some type of mechanism to extract energy from the ZPF. One fundamental difference between the SED interpretation and that of quantum mechanics is that in quantum mechanics the ls state of the electron is regarded as having zero angular momentum, whereas in the SED interpretation the electron has an angular momentum of mp~I 137 .7 The Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom in the SED view is 0.529 A. This implies that the wavelength (A) of zero-point radiation responsible for sustaining the orbit is 2n •0.529 • 137 = 455 A(or 0.0455 µm). It has been conjectured by Puthoff and Haisch (private communication, 2004) that suppression of zero-point radiation at this wavelength (and at shorter wavelengths) inside a Casimir microcavity could result in the decay of the electron to a lower energy state determined by a new balance between classical emission of an accelerated charge and absorption of zero-point radiation at 'A, < 455 A, where ;i_ depends on the microcavity plate separation (d) . Since the frequency of this orbit is 6.6 x 1015 Hz, no matter how quickly the atom were to be injected into a Casimir microcavity, one would assume that the decay process would be a slow one as experienced by the orbiting electron. Figure 5 shows a schematic representation of a hydrogenic atom in free space and inside a microcavity. 7 me = electron mass (9.11 x 10-31 kg), re = electron radius, atomic fine structure (a.k.a. QED coupling) constant er. =1/137, and c/137 is the classical orbital velocity of the ground state electron. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 10 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFI@IAL WSE QptLY J., ~ -11111 0 _o ,. 0 ]' 1 b b ______,___________ 1· ---+---~--------- 7· E out Figure S. Energy Released from Ground State Suppression of Hydrogenic Atom in a Microcavity. (rb = free-space Bohr orbit radius, fb' = suppressed Bohr orbit radius, ,, = resonant wavelength of Bohr orbit, and E out = released energy). Consider the possibility that the decay to a new sub-Bohr ground state would involve gradual release of energy in the form of heat, rather than a sudden optical radiation signature. Since the binding energy of the electron is 13.6 eV, 8 it is estimated that the amount of energy released in this process could be on the order of 1 to 10 eV for injection of the hydrogen atom into a Casimir cavity of d = 250 A. Furthermore, consider the possibility that when the electron exits the cavity it would reabsorb energy from the zero-point field and be re-excited to its normal state. If these conjectures were to be verified by experiment, then the energy extracted in the process comes at the expense of the zero-point field, which in the SEO interpretation propagates at the speed of light throughout the universe. In effect the energy would be extracted locally and replenished globally. The secondary consequences on other phenomena, if this energy conversion were to succeed, have not yet been investigated. However, on a cautionary note, the conflicts between SEO and QED theories (discussed in Section V) raise questions as to whether the conjectured approach discussed here is viable. This issue is perhaps best addressed by experiment for its resolution. In terms of an experimental test, consider using monatomic gases or liquids flowing in a block with Casimir tunnels, which has the following attributes: 1) no dissociation process is required for monatomic gases or liquids, 2) heavier element atoms are approximately two to four times larger than hydrogen and thus can utilize and be affected by a larger Casimir cavity, 3) heavier elements have numerous outer shell electrons, several of which may be simultaneously affected by the reduction of zero­ point radiation in a Casimir cavity. All of the noble gas elements contain ns electrons. He (Z = 2, r = 1.2 A) has two ls electrons. Ne (Z = 10, r = 1.3 A) has two each of ls and 2s electrons. Ar (Z = 18, r = 1.6 A) has two each of ls, 2s, and 3s electrons. Kr (Z = 36, r = 1.8 A) has two of each 8 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J. UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 11 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY of ls, 2s, 3s, and 4s electrons. Xe (Z = 54, r = 2.05 A) has two of each of ls, 2s, 3s, 4s and 5s electrons. Larger Casimir cavities would also be expected to have an effect on the energetics of the outer electron shells (at larger radii). One could therefore expect that a Casimir cavity having d = 0.1 µm could have an effect on reducing the energy levels of the outermost pair of s electrons, and possibly also p electrons and intermediate shell s electrons as well. Continuing with this model, it is reasonable to expect that a 0.1 µm Casimir cavity could result in a release of 1 to 10 eV for each injection of a He, Ne, Ar, Kr or Xe atom into such a cavity. According to Maclay (Reference 26), a long cylindrical Casimir cavity results in an inward force on the cavity walls due to the exclusion of interior ZPF modes. In the "exclusion of modes" interpretation of the Casimir force, this implies that a cylindrical cavity of diameter 0.1 µm could yield the desired decay of outer shell electrons and subsequent release of energy. If one lets the length of the cylinder be 100 times the width, this results in "A. = 10 µm for the length of the Casimir tunnel. Taking advantage of this effect, Puthoff (private communication, 2004) and Haisch and Moddel (Reference 27) propose a segmented tunnel consisting of alternating conducting and non-conducting materials, each 10 µm in length. In a length of 1 cm, there could be 500 such pairs in segments, resulting in 500 energy releases (each yielding 1 to 10 eV) for each transit of an atom through the entire 1 cm-long Casimir tunnel. Now consider a 1 cm 3 block that is built up of 10 ~1m thick alternating layers as described above (see Figure 6 for an illustration of this apparatus). Assume that tunnels of 0.1 µm diameter could be drilled through the cube perpendicular to the layers (this is not physically possible, of course; tunnel manufacture must be done differently). If 10 percent of the cross section comprises entrance to some 1.3 billion tunnels, then the amount of energy released wou ld be proportional to the flow rate of the gas through the tunnels (for the number of entrances and exits through Casimir segments). A flow rate of 10 cm/s through a total cross sectional area of 0.1 cm 2 yields 1 cm 3 of gas per second flowing through the tunnels, which at STP would be 2.7 x 1019 atoms. A very simple sealed, closed-loop pumping system could maintain such a continuous gas flow. Since each atom interacts 500 times during its passage, there would be 1.3 x 1022 transitions per second in the entire cube of 1 cm 3. An energy release of 1 to 10 eV per transition corresponds to 2,150 to 21,500 W of power released from the entire Casimir cube of tunnels. This can also be achieved by using a pair of plates with conducting strips creating Casimir cavities (via 5000 strip pairs) that are separated by 0.1 µm spacers, through which Hg liquid or monatomic gases (for example, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, or Xe) flow (Reference 27). See Figure 7 for an illustration of this apparatus. However, again, all of this assumes that the chain of conjectures detailed above is correct. Fortunately, this can be experimentally tested. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 12 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAk WSE 9Ptk\f Figure 6. Apparatus for Ground State Figure 7. Alternative Apparatus for Ground State Energy Energy Suppression: Casimir Segmented Suppression: Casimir Strip and Spacer-Channels Tunnels Microcavity fabrication to match the atomic ground states is daunting because there will potentially be fabrication irregularities that cause edge and surface effects which act upon the particles as they enter or exit the Casimir region. And it is not possible to drill 1.3 billion tunnels having diameters of 0.1 µm. However, it should be feasible to use microchip technology to etch holes into the individual layers first and then assemble the stack. Extremely fine coregistration and alignment of stacks would be an issue, but a surmountable one. A much smaller number of layer pairs and tunnels would suffice for a measurable demonstration of release of ZPE by this process. If such a small-scale demonstration succeeds, larger versions that convert more energy could be built that also take advantage of more efficient thermal-to-electrical energy conversion methods. Also if successful, such apparatuses could be used to explore for secondary effects of converting quantum vacuum energy into thermal, then electrical energy. Further investigation by Puthoff et al. (Reference 28) was based on the premise that the above principle is broadly applicable to other than just atomic ground states. In their experiment, H2 gas was passed through a 1 µm Casimir cavity to suppress the ZPE radiation at the vibrational ground state of the H2 molecule. The anticipated signature for such a process would be an increase in the dissociation energy of the molecule. Initial experiments, shown in Figure 8, were carried out at the Synchrotron Radiation Center at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, where an intense UV beam is available to disassociate gas molecules. Unfortunately, problems with the synchrotron beam (unrelated to the experiment) prevented a definitive result from being obtained, so the efficacy of this ZPE-extraction approach remains undetermined at the present time. Further experimentation to investigate this hypothesis has yet to be completed. UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 13 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFI@IAk WSE 9Ptk\f Figure 8. Experimental Apparatus for Ground State Energy Reduction Tests TUNABLE CASIMIR EFFECT As previously discussed, the Casimir Effect is a unique ZPF-driven quantum force that occurs between closely-spaced conductive cavity walls (or plates). If left unfettered, the plates will collapse together and energy is converted from the ZPF into heat (or other forms of energy) in accordance with the expression El A =-rc2hc/720d 3 , where EJA is the energy per unit area of the plates and dis the plate separation. Investigation of this mechanism by Cole and Puthoff (Reference 11) showed that this process fully obeys energy conservation and thermodynamic laws. Although the Casimir force is conservative, and thus the Casimir device might appear to be a one-shot device, the fact that the attractive Casimir force is weaker for dielectric plates compared to conductive plates raises the possibility of the use of thin-film switchable mirrors to obtain a recycling engine (Reference 29-31). Figure 9 shows a comparison of the strength of the Casimir force in a conductive cavity with that in a dielectric cavity. In such an application the plates are drawn together by the stronger force associated with the conducting state and withdrawn after switching to the dielectric state. The engine cycle for this concept is shown in Figure 10. Assuming optimistic conditions for practical devices (negligible energy required for switching; plate separation oscillations between 30 nm and 15 nm for 1 cm 2 plates; driving circuit UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 14 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY ,,;:; 10 times the weight of the Casimir plates, and so forth), an estimate of the achievable power might be obtained. Based on the described parameters, and assuming a switching from a purely conductive state to a dielectric constant of K = 4, yields a figure of merit of z 35 x f(MHz) W/kg (f = switching rate) for the power density (Reference 29). This can be compared to the power density of ,,;:; 5 W/kg achieved by current radioisotope thermoelectric generators. The predicted output power per unit area for this experimental device is z 10-6 f (MHz)/4[d( ~1m)J3 W/cm2. Spacing, d (µm) 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0 l -- 5 ~ ......,, = .... lO ~ X conductor Gil " 15 .:a ·a ~ i 20 i ~ 25 30 Figure 9. Tunable Casimir Effect: Conductor vs. Dielectric UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 15 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY Spacing, d (µm) 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0 - 5 l i=;;_; ......,-= 10 ~ X ~ G,l 15 .:e ..... ·= e 20 ~ ~ ~ ~ 25 30 . ----1-·---· mput K=4 energy ---- ---- output energy Figure 10. Tunable Casimir Effect: Engine Cycle Another "tunable" conductive-type plate experiment under consideration involves the use of plates consisting of three-dimensional photonic crystals, with the bandgap of the photons that can transmit through the structure being a "tunable" value. Using microelectromechanical processing methods, Sandia National Laboratory has produced such crystals and is researching methods of actively modifying the structures while in use (Reference 32). The technology requirements for this concept are the nano­ fabrication of microcavities with thin-film deposited surfaces, RF-driven piezoelectric mounts for cavity oscillation, mirror-switching modality (for example, hydrogen pressure modulation), and calorimetric measurement of energy/heat production. An initial experiment to explore this concept was recently performed by Iannuzzi et al. (Reference 33). They investigated the effect of hydrogen switchable mirrors (HSMs) on the Casimir force. HSMs are shiny metals in their "as deposited" state. However, when they are exposed to a hydrogen-rich atmosphere, they become optically transparent. Because the electromagnetic ZPF depends on the optical properties of the surfaces, the Casimir force of attraction between two HSMs in air should be different than the attraction between the same HSMs immersed in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere. That is because one expects that the Casimir force will be much weaker when the HSM is in the UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 16 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS&i OPtkY transparent state rather than in the reflective state. The experiment tested this for plate separations of 70 - 400 nm. Iannuzzi et al. 's experimental results showed that the Casimir force did not noticeably decrease after filling the experimental apparatus with hydrogen. This may have occurred for two reasons. First, the dielectric properties of the HSMs used in the experiment are only known only in a limited range of wavelengths spanning 0.3 - 2.5 µm, while the experiment measured the transparency of the HSMs over a wavelength range of 0.5 - 3 µm. This narrower wavelength span excludes the rest of the electromagnetic ZPF modes having wavelengths shorter than 0.5 µm and longer than 3 µm. The ZPF modes lying outside this narrow wavelength span were not affected by the hydrogenation-induced transparency of the HSMs, hence their contribution to the total Casimir force acting between the HSMs was not included. One would expect to see a significant decrease of the Casimir force if the hydrogenation-induced transparency of the HSMs had affected all of the ZPF mode wavelengths ranging from IR to UV (ZPF modes with 1c >> 2.5 µm will not give rise to large contributions to the force). Second, the experiment demonstrated a property of the Lifshitz theory (see Reference 33 for more detail), that in order to significantly change the Casimir force between surfaces at separations on the order of 100 nm it is not sufficient just to change their optical (IR and visible) reflectivity, but it is necessary to modify their dielectric functions over a much wider spectral range. This comports with the first reason, and indicates that more theoretical and experimental work is needed to overcome the shortcomings of this experiment, and allow for the design and testing of new experiments that can achieve Casimir plate transparency over a wider spectral range. A notion similar to the tunable Casimir Effect involves changing the dimensions of a rectangular "Casimir box." Forward (Reference 34) proposed a paradox in which energy could be extracted by altering the aspect ratio of a conductive rectangular Casimir cavity over a specific cycle of dimension changes (for example, varying width while holding length constant). It was subsequently shown by Maclay (Reference 26, 35), that the Casimir energy inside the box is not isotropic, varying in such a way that more work is expended in cycling the box dimensions than can be extracted. It appears that no net gain of energy is theoretically possible in this scheme. Whether such considerations apply to the tunable Casimir cavity concept remains to be assessed. EV PHENOMENON Shoulders (Reference 36) developed an experimental program to explore the physics of microscopic plasma vortices (aka force-free plasmoids), which are thought to be a form of ball lightning (Reference 37). This study was motivated by the earlier experimental work of Wells at the Princeton University Plasma Physics Laboratory, Bostick and Nardi at the Stevens Inst. of Technology, and their collaborators (Reference 38-45). Shoulders became interested in the possibility of stable, quantized force-free structures that could be taken apart by some process to yield a net energy gain for power generation. The foundation for this speculation was Nardi et al.'s (Reference 45) observation of strange electron concentrations they called vortex filaments that formed in an electron beam made by plasma focus or relativistic electron beam machines, which exhibited electron concentrations that appeared to violate the space charge law. Furthermore, Nardi et al. observed that the vortex filaments were striking exposed materials (for example, metals, dielectrics, ceramics, glass), boring smooth channels straight through them, and sometimes exploding with such a large force that they 17 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFICIO~ P Pili QIII.¥ UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY created impact craters or holes in the materials. Piestrup et al. (Reference 46) performed more recent experiments to investigate this unusual phenomenon. This discovery inspired Shoulders to consider vortex filaments as a potential new source of energy, and hence he named them electromagnetic vortices or "EVs." However, given that he could not experimentally verify the vortex nature of the phenomenon, he later redefined EV to mean Electrum Validum (roughly translated as strong electron). Bostick and Shoulders began collaborating and realized that EVs were much easier to generate and observe using micro-arc discharge devices because they are usually obscured by surrounding plasma in large high-power plasma machines. This led Shoulders to design a series of low-voltage, low-power micro-arc discharge (or condensed-charge emission) devices to produce EVs in the lab. Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram for one embodiment of an EV (pulse discharge source) device. The EVs are generated at the cathode tip and then follow the path (dashed line above the dielectric) to the impact site on the ground plane (in the figure, C = capacitor and V = voltage). The EVs generated by such devices were able to reproduce the material damage observed in Nardi et al. 's earlier experiments. -V Figure 11. Schematic of EV (Pulse Discharge Source) Device (Reference 47) UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 18 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFI@IAk WSE 9Ptk\f Figure 12 shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) photograph of the damage inflicted by a single EV burst fired along an aluminum-oxide ceramic plate. The EV bored through the ceramic forming a smooth symmetrical channel along its path. Figure 12. SEM of EV Damage to Ceramic Plate (20 um scale) (Reference 36) UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 19 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFIEIAk WS& OPtkY Figure 13 shows a SEM photo of a single EV shot on a Palladium (Pd) target from a 40 pF capacitor charged to 3,000 Volts (containing 7.5 x 1011 electrons). At least 100 tiny craters were formed in the target. The larger craters formed in the Pd target as seen in the photo suggest a very energetic impact that melted the Pd locally, making a small hole surrounded by a crater wall. Figure 13. SEM of EV Damage to Palladium Target (Reference 36) UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICIO! P!ili QIU.,¥ 20 UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFI@IAk WSE 9Ptk\f Figure 14 shows an example of an EV moving away from its source and shedding electrons while giving off light as it was decaying . Figure 14. EV (large blob at bottom) Moving at Downward Angle Away From Its Source (smaller blob near center of photo) (Reference 36) Shoulders' experimental studies claim that EVs have physical characteristics corresponding to the phenomenon observed by Nardi et al. His conclusions were that EVs are compact spherically shaped balls (diameter"" 1 - 20 µm) of condensed high­ density charge ( ~ 1030 electrons/m3) with an internal electric field > 108 V/m, a charge­ to-mass ratio of 1.7588 x 1011 Coulomb/kg (:::o electron's charge-to-mass ratio), and a surface current density of 6 x 1015 Amps/m 2 (Reference 36). Shoulders also reported that EVs are a source of (copious) X-rays; a single EV discharge gun can produce multiple EVs in which the coupling between adjacent EVs produces quasi-stable structures (chains); and EVs respond like an electron under deflection by external fields of known polarity. Since electrons would not be expected to bind together due to their mutual Coulomb repulsion, a speculative model based on the vacuum electromagnetic ZPF was formed UNCLASSIFIED/ /FOR OFFICI0L: 11ili QIU.,¥ 21 UNCLASSIFIED//FOR OFFIEIAk WS&i OPtkY to explain the existence of EVs. The emerging laboratory evidence led investigators to consider the hypothesis that the Casimir effect may be a major contributing mechanism to the formation of EVs in micro-arc discharges. This conjecture is based on models by Casimir (Reference 48) and Puthoff and Piestrup (Reference 49) suggesting that the generation of a relatively cold, dense, non-neutral (charged) plasma results in charge­ condensation effects that may be attributable to a Casimir-type pinch effect (that is, ZPF-induced pressure forces) in which the inverse square-law Coulomb repulsion is overcome by an attractive inverse fourth-law Casimir force to yield a stable configuration of bound charg